🌍 Earth Science

layers · rocks · plate tectonics · natural phenomena

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Igneous Rock
Formed from cooled magma or lava
Igneous rocks form when molten material (magma underground, lava at the surface) cools and solidifies. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground forming large crystals. Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly at the surface, forming small or no crystals.
Granite Basalt Obsidian Pumice Gabbro
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Sedimentary Rock
Formed from compressed layers of sediment
Sedimentary rocks form when particles of rock, organic matter, or minerals are deposited, buried and compacted over millions of years. They often contain fossils and make up about 75% of rocks at Earth's surface. Found in horizontal layers called strata.
Sandstone Limestone Shale Coal Chalk
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Metamorphic Rock
Formed under intense heat and pressure
Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are transformed by extreme heat, pressure, or hot fluids — without melting. The original rock's minerals recrystallise into new forms. They often show layered patterns called foliation.
Marble Slate Quartzite Schist Gneiss
♻️ The Rock Cycle
Rocks continuously transform between types over millions of years. Igneous rocks are weathered into sediments → compacted into sedimentary rocks → buried and pressurised into metamorphic rocks → melted back into magma → erupted as new igneous rock. No rock is permanent — all are part of this endless cycle driven by plate tectonics and Earth's internal heat.
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Volcanoes
Openings in Earth's crust where molten rock (magma), ash and gases escape. Found at tectonic plate boundaries and hotspots. Over 1,500 potentially active volcanoes exist.
Largest: Mauna Loa, Hawaii · Tallest: Ojos del Salado, Andes
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Earthquakes
Sudden shaking caused by the release of energy from slipping tectonic plates along fault lines. Measured on the Richter or moment magnitude scale. ~500,000 occur per year.
Strongest recorded: M9.5 Chile, 1960 · Ring of Fire: 90% of earthquakes
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Tsunamis
Giant ocean waves triggered by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Can travel across entire oceans at 800 km/h and reach heights of 30+ metres.
Deadliest: 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami · ~227,000 lives lost
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Plate Tectonics
Earth's lithosphere is divided into ~15 major plates that move 2–10 cm per year. Plate boundaries are where mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes are most common.
Convergent · Divergent · Transform boundaries
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Weather vs Climate
Weather is short-term atmospheric conditions (temperature, rain, wind). Climate is the long-term pattern of weather over decades. Driven by solar energy, ocean currents and atmosphere.
Köppen climate zones: Tropical · Dry · Temperate · Continental · Polar
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Glaciers & Ice Ages
Massive slow-moving rivers of compacted ice that shape landscapes through erosion. During ice ages, glaciers covered up to 30% of Earth's land. They store 69% of Earth's fresh water.
Antarctica ice sheet: up to 4.8 km thick · holds 26.5 million km³
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Erosion & Weathering
Weathering breaks down rocks through physical, chemical or biological processes. Erosion transports material via water, wind or ice. Together they shape canyons, valleys and coastlines.
Grand Canyon: carved by the Colorado River over 5–6 million years
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Soil Formation
Soil forms from weathered rock, organic matter, water and air. It takes ~500 years to form 25 mm of topsoil. Home to billions of organisms per teaspoon and essential for all land life.
Soil layers (horizons): O · A · B · C · R (bedrock)
What is this?

Earth science studies our planet's structure, surface, atmosphere, and natural processes — from volcanoes and earthquakes to weather systems, ocean currents, and climate.

Why does it matter?

Earth science drives climate research, earthquake and volcano preparedness, mineral exploration, and environmental conservation — affecting billions of lives every day.

Key terms
Tectonic plates — giant sections of Earth's crust that slowly move and cause earthquakes Atmosphere — layers of gas surrounding Earth: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere Rock cycle — the continuous process by which rock types transform over time Erosion — wearing away of rock and soil by wind, water, or ice Biome — a large ecosystem type defined by its climate and characteristic wildlife
🎯 Try this challenge

Name the 3 types of rock and give a real-world example of each. Hint: think granite (kitchen countertops), sandstone (canyon walls), and marble (sculpture and flooring).

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